Technostress and Productivity: Evidence from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) Workers
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59413/ajocs/v7.i5.12Keywords:
Primary Factors Contributing to Technostress, BPO, Employee Productivity, KenyaAbstract
Technostress in Kenya's Business Process Outsourcing sector significantly reduced productivity, increased turnover, and posed mental health challenges. This study examined primary factors contributing to technostress among BPO workers and their influence on employee productivity. The study was anchored on Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model and Transactional Model of Stress and Coping. The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model. The study employed sequential explanatory mixed-methods design. Using Krejcie and Morgan's formula, 369 participants were selected through stratified random sampling from 8,000-10,000 BPO employees across 14 Nairobi service providers, with 15-20 purposively selected for qualitative phase. SPSS version 28 analyzed quantitative data through descriptive statistics, correlation and regression. The study found primary technostress factors negatively correlated with productivity at r = -0.403 and explained 16.2 percent variance with coefficient B = -0.435. The study concludes that primary factors contributing to technostress significantly and negatively influence employee productivity in Kenya's BPO sector. Technology insecurity emerged as the most severe stressor, with employees expressing substantial concerns about job displacement due to automation and AI integration, followed closely by technology overload manifesting through overwhelming digital task volumes and constant notification streams. Technology complexity, invasion, and uncertainty demonstrated moderate prevalence, indicating that BPO employees experience multiple simultaneous technostressors creating cumulative strain affecting work performance. The study recommends that BPO organizations in Kenya should implement comprehensive technostress mitigation strategies addressing all five primary stressor dimensions simultaneously rather than isolated interventions targeting single factors. Organizations should prioritize addressing technology insecurity concerns by providing transparent communication about automation implementation plans, offering clear career development pathways demonstrating how AI enhances rather than replaces human roles, and establishing job security assurances coupled with reskilling programs preparing employees for evolving technological landscapes.
Downloads
References
Akif, M., Toker, S., & Güler, N. (2022). Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health General mental state and quality of working life of call center employees. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health, 77(8), 628–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2021.1986462 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2021.1986462
Andrade, I. M. De, & Tumelero, C. (2022). Increasing customer service efficiency through artificial intelligence chatbot. Revista de Gestao, 29(3), 238–251. https://doi.org/10.1108/REGE-07-2021-0120 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/REGE-07-2021-0120
Andrade, J. M., Plazas, E. R., Ramírez, J. C., & Castro, D. B. (2023). Technostress, transformational leadership, and academic performance of university students in South Colombia. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 21(4), 467–482. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.21(4).2023.36 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.21(4).2023.36
Arenas, A., Sanclemente, F. J., Terán-Tinedo, V., & Di Marco, D. (2023). Spanish Validation of the Technostress Creators Scale. Psicothema, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2022.198 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2022.198
Babbie, E. (2016). The practice of social research (14th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Sanz-vergel, A. (2023). Job Demands – Resources Theory : Ten Years Later. 25–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-053933
Bondanini, G., Giorgi, G., Ariza-Montes, A., Vega-Muñoz, A., & Andreucci-Annunziata, P. (2020). Technostress dark side of technology in the workplace: a scientometric analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218013
Borle, P., Reichel, K., Niebuhr, F., & Voelter-Mahlknecht, S. (2021). How are techno-stressors associated with mental health and work outcomes? A systematic review of occupational exposure to information and communication technologies within the technostress model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168673
Brod, C. (1982). Managing technostress: optimizing the use of computer technology. The Personnel Journal, 61(10), 753–757.
Camacho, S., & Barrios, A. (2022). Teleworking and technostress: early consequences of a COVID-19 lockdown. Cognition, Technology and Work, 24(3), 441–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-022-00693-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-022-00693-4
Chang, P. C., Zhang, W., Cai, Q., & Guo, H. (2024). Does AI-Driven Technostress Promote or Hinder Employees’ Artificial Intelligence Adoption Intention? A Moderated Mediation Model of Affective Reactions and Technical Self-Efficacy. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 17, 413–427. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S441444 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S441444
Dopp, A. R., Parisi, K. E., Munson, S. A., & Lyon, A. R. (2020a). Aligning implementation and user-centered design strategies to enhance the impact of health services: results from a concept mapping study. Implementation Science Communications, 1(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/S43058-020-00020-W/TABLES/2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43058-020-00020-w
Dutta, D., & Mishra, S. K. (2024b). “Technology is killing me!”: the moderating effect of organization home-work interface on the linkage between technostress and stress at work. Information Technology & People, 37(6), 2203–2222. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-03-2022-0169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-03-2022-0169
Edwards, J. R. (2008b). 4 Person–Environment Fit in Organizations: An Assessment of Theoretical Progress. Academy of Management Annals, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520802211503 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520802211503
Goodhue, D. L., & Thompson, R. L. (1995). Task-technology fit and individual performance. MIS Quarterly: Management Information Systems, 19(2), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.2307/249689 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/249689
Graham, L. M. & M. (2018). The Domestic Turn: Business Process Outsourcing and the Growing Automation of Kenyan Organisations. Globalization, Economic Inclusion and African Workers, 68–86. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315436494-10 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315436494-10
Hang, Y., Hussain, G., Amin, A., & Abdullah, M. I. (2022). The Moderating Effects of Technostress Inhibitors on Techno-Stressors and Employee’s Well-Being. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(January), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.821446 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.821446
KENIA. (2024). Kenya Innovation Outlook (KIO) EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES EDITION. June. www.kenia.go.ke
Kleibert, J. M., & Mann, L. (2020). Capturing Value amidst Constant Global Restructuring? Information-Technology-Enabled Services in India, the Philippines and Kenya. European Journal of Development Research, 32(4), 1057–1079. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00256-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00256-1
Kumar, A., Krishnamoorthy, B., & Bhattacharyya, S. S. (2024). Machine learning and artificial intelligence-induced technostress in organizations: a study on automation-augmentation paradox with socio-technical systems as coping mechanisms. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 32(4), 681–701. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-01-2023-3581 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-01-2023-3581
Kumar, V., Rajan, B., Salunkhe, U., & Joag, S. G. (2022). Relating the dark side of new-age technologies and customer technostress. Psychology and Marketing, 39(12), 2240–2259. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21738 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21738
Kwon, M., & Remøy, H. (2021a). User-centred design thinking: Application of UCDT theories to workplace management. A Handbook of Management Theories and Models for Office Environments and Services. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003128786-16
Larsen, M. M., Mkalama, B., & Mol, M. J. (2023). Outsourcing in Africa: How do the interactions between providers, multinationals, and the state lead to the evolution of the BPO industry? Journal of International Business Policy, 6(4), 432–452. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-023-00166-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-023-00166-z
Laura Mann & Mark Graham. (2021). The Domestic Turn: Business Process Outsourcing and the Growing Automation of Kenyan Organisations. Globalization, Economic Inclusion and African Workers, 68–86. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315436494-10/DOMESTIC-TURN-BUSINESS-PROCESS-OUTSOURCING-GROWING-AUTOMATION-KENYAN-ORGANISATIONS-LAURA-MANN-MARK-GRAHAM
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/PER.2410010304 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410010304
Lee, Z. W. Y., Chan, T. K. H., & Cheung, C. M. K. (2021). Information Technology in Organisations and Societies: Multidisciplinary Perspectives from AI to Technostress. Information Technology in Organisations and Societies: Multidisciplinary Perspectives from AI to Technostress, 1–208. https://doi.org/10.1108/9781839098123/URN:EMERALDGROUP.COM:ASSET:ID:BINARY:9781839098123.LARGECOVER.GIF DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/9781839098123
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. African Centre for Technology Studies.
Nastjuk, I., Trang, S., Grummeck-Braamt, J. V., Adam, M. T. P., & Tarafdar, M. (2024). Integrating and synthesising technostress research: a meta-analysis on technostress creators, outcomes, and IS usage contexts. European Journal of Information Systems, 33(3), 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2022.2154712 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2022.2154712
Nisafani, A. S., Kiely, G., & Mahony, C. (2020). Workers’ technostress: a review of its causes, strains, inhibitors, and impacts. Journal of Decision Systems, 29(sup1), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2020.1796286 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2020.1796286
Norman, D. A., & Draper, S. W. (1986). User Centered System Design,New Perspectives on Human Computer Interaction. In CRC Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b15703
Novák, J. Š., Masner, J., Benda, P., Šimek, P., & Merunka, V. (2024). Eye Tracking, Usability, and User Experience: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 40(17), 4484–4500. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2023.2221600 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2023.2221600
Oboko, R. O. (2016). Techno Characteristics And Stressors Leading To Behavioural Strains Associated With Technostress Amongst Young People In Kenya.
Ogada Hongo, H., Kwanya, T., & Kiplang, J. (2019). Technostress among Technical University Librarians in Kenya. 2–10.
Padma, V., Anand, N. N., Gurukul, S. M. G. S., Javid, S. M. A. S. M., Prasad, A., & Arun, S. (2015). Health problems and stress in Information Technology and Business Process Outsourcing employees. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 7, S9–S13. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.155764 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-7406.155764
Pham Thi, T. D., & Duong, N. T. (2024). Investigating learning burnout and academic performance among management students: a longitudinal study in English courses. BMC Psychology, 12(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01725-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01725-6
Pichette, M. (2023). OUTSOURCING TO AFRICA: TOP COUNTRIES FOR BPO. Nature, July. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01687-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-01687-6
Porcari, D. E., Ricciardi, E., & Orfei, M. D. (2023). A new scale to assess technostress levels in an Italian banking context: the Work-Related Technostress Questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 14(September), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1253960 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1253960
Pullins, E., Tarafdar, M., & Pham, P. (2020). The dark side of sales technologies: how technostress affects sales professionals. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness, 7(3), 297–320. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-04-2020-0045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-04-2020-0045
Ragu-Nathan, T. S., Tarafdar, M., Ragu-Nathan, B. S., & Tu, Q. (2008). The consequences of technostress for end users in organizations: Conceptual development and validation. Information Systems Research, 19(4), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1070.0165 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1070.0165
Salazar-Concha, C., Ficapal-Cusí, P., Peñarroja, V., & Enache-Zegheru, M. (2022). Validation of the Spanish version of the Technostress Creators Scale in Chilean Workers. Anales de Psicologia, 38(3), 518–529. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.509551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.509551
Saleem, F., & Malik, M. I. (2023). Technostress, Quality of Work Life, and Job Performance: A Moderated Mediation Model. Behavioral Sciences, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13121014
Sanjeeva Kumar, P. (2024). TECHNOSTRESS: A comprehensive literature review on dimensions, impacts, and management strategies. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 16(August), 100475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100475 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100475
Sasidharan, S. (2022). Technostress in the workplace: a social network perspective. Information Technology and People, 35(4), 1219–1238. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-09-2020-0649 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-09-2020-0649
Scholze, A., & Hecker, A. (2024). The job demands-resources model as a theoretical lens for the bright and dark side of digitization. Computers in Human Behavior, 155(October 2023), 108177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108177 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108177
Sharma, S., & Gupta, B. (2023). Investigating the role of technostress, cognitive appraisal and coping strategies on students’ learning performance in higher education: a multidimensional transactional theory of stress approach. Information Technology and People, 36(2), 626–660. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-06-2021-0505 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-06-2021-0505
Tarafdar, M., Cooper, C. L., & Stich, J. F. (2019). The technostress trifecta - techno eustress, techno distress and design: Theoretical directions and an agenda for research. Information Systems Journal, 29(1), 6–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12169
Tarafdar, M., Pullins, E. B., & Ragu-Nathan, T. S. (2015). Technostress: Negative effect on performance and possible mitigations. Information Systems Journal, 25(2), 103–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12042 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12042
Tarafdar, M., Stich, J. F., Maier, C., & Laumer, S. (2024a). Techno-eustress creators: Conceptualization and empirical validation. Information Systems Journal, September 2022, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12515
Tarafdar, M., Stich, J. F., Maier, C., & Laumer, S. (2024b). Techno-eustress creators: Conceptualization and empirical validation. Information Systems Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/ISJ.12515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12515
Tarafdar, M., Tu, Q., Ragu-Nathan, B. S., & Ragu-Nathan, T. S. (2007). The impact of technostress on role stress and productivity. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24(1), 301–328. https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222240109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222240109
Tarafdar, M., Tu, Q., Ragu-Nathan, T. S., & Ragu-Nathan, B. S. (2011). Crossing to the dark side: Examining creators, outcomes, and inhibitors of technostress. Communications of the ACM, 54(9), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1145/1995376.1995403 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/1995376.1995403
Tzu, S., Ken, T., Habaradas, R., Wei, I., Ting, K., & Kweh, Q. L. (2016). Technostress in a Call Center in Philippines. International Journal of Business Management, 1(2).
van der Merwe, M., & Armitage, G. (2019). Towards a provisional workplace e-learning acceptance framework for developing countries. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 933. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11235-6_15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11235-6_15
van Velsen, L., Ludden, G., & Grünloh, C. (2022). The Limitations of User-and Human-Centered Design in an eHealth Context and How to Move Beyond Them. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(10), e37341. https://doi.org/10.2196/37341 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/37341
Wang, X., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-Sectional Studies: Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations. Chest, 158(1), S65–S71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
Wang, X., & Li, B. (2019). Technostress among teachers in higher education: An investigation from multidimensional person-environment misfit. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(JULY). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01791 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01791
Wang, X., & Yu, X. (2024). Art Students’ Technostress, Perceived Usefulness, Satisfaction, and Continuance Intention to Use Mobile Educational Applications. SAGE Open, 14(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241260206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241260206
Wang, Z., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Liu, L., & Lv, C. (2023). Navigating Technostress in primary schools: a study on teacher experiences, school support, and health. Frontiers in Psychology, 14(November), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267767 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267767
Wu, A., Roemer, E. C., Kent, K. B., Ballard, D. W., & Goetzel, R. Z. (2021). Organizational best practices supporting mental health in the workplace. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63(12), E925–E931. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002407
Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., Zhang, S., Chen, Y., Wang, X., Fujii, Y., & Furuya, N. (2024). Person-environment fit theory in built environment: a scoping review. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 00(00), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2024.2373824 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2024.2373824
Zhao, G., Zhao, R., Yan, X., Conceição, S. C. O., Cheng, Z., & Peng, Q. (2024). The effects of technostress, intolerance of uncertainty, and ICT competence on learning burnout during COVID-19: a moderated mediation examination. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 44(2), 408–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2022.2071835 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2022.2071835
Zhen, Y., Sugasaki, M., Kawahara, Y., Tsubouchi, K., Ishige, M., & Shimosaka, M. (2021). AI-BPO: Adaptive incremental BLE beacon placement optimization for crowd density monitoring applications. GIS: Proceedings of the ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, 301–304. https://doi.org/10.1145/3474717.3483964 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3474717.3483964
Zone, P. E. (2024). The Future Of Outsourcing Excellence : Welcome to TRIFIC SEZ , Africa ’ s Gateway To The World ! April.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Fredrick Michael Ogore, Prof. Patrick Wamuyu Kanyi, Prof. Gerald Chegee (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
